Comte and Durkheim Concern With Social Order Essay

Comte and Durkheim Concern With Social Order - Essay Example Comte and Durkheim Concern With Social Order The events which are notified in the history of sociology are three as main characteristics. These events include renaissance, French revolution and industrial revolution in England. These three highlighted events are the core divisional structural components of social construction. As France was the revolutionary nation that pulled the monarch system out and set up a republic state in the last decade of 17th century, opposition of slavery and slave trading, presidential system instead of monarch system and withdrawal of excessive protocol system may be broadened as main characteristics of French revolution. By the 19th century, France had transformed into a developed nation. There were a lot of positive changes and social dynamics introduced which helped the people to improve their life styles. The industrialization in France that was brought after French revolution embossed deep foot prints over the societal life in France. The deep rooted French revolution was no doubt a key to in dustrialization that further permitted the social classes and social ordinal levels become segregated in the society. The impacts were still not very much immediate if compared to Britain and German industrial revolutions. August Comte was a French thinker who worked for construction of sociology and presented a social structure theory. According to the theory of social structure, every society comes into being by following several stages. These stages include religious, metaphysical and scientific. The problem solvers in the society use scientific and logical knowledge based evidence to fix the societal issues rather than just compromising over mythological phenomena (Macionis, 2007). August Comte believed that there are two branches of society as statics and dynamics. Dynamics may be referred to as a study of processes through which society adopts changes and transformations whereas Statistics is the name of study through which societies last. He also argued that societies are moved in positive directions through working over the scientific knowledge which is merely logical (Bijker Hughes & Pinch, 1987). Basically Comte contributed in the development of sociology through classification of social orde ring and sciences (the law of three stages; stated above), presented a wide scope and nature of sociology in depth, the plan through which societies may be reconstructed and the positive philosophical measures for society (Bijker, Hughes & Pinch, 1987). The contributions of Emile Durkheim are also remarkable in the history of sociology. He was also a French writer and thinker who presented numerous theories and practices to improve the social processes. The presented theories of Durkheim are more deep rooted as compared to that of August Comte’

The art is lovers in a cafa the photographer is Brassai Research Paper

The art is lovers in a cafa the photographer is Brassai - Research Paper Example Usually, the photographers tend to focus on photographic realism that portrays harsh realities. This picture creates a connection between photographer and the subjects. This technique makes the picture more sophisticated. Brassaà ¯ considered Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec as his influence (Janson and Janson, 2004). The interesting thing about this picture is that, even though, the man has his back to the camera the photographer has been able to capture his eyes. The mirror reflection gives the picture more meaning. The way he is looking at his lover is full of love and romance. The woman is smiling, and both of them seem to be in love with each other. Kissing or fondling is a very natural act, but the photographer has highlighted it and captured it in a timeless medium. The picture is black and white, and there is hardly any posing. Both the subjects appear to be in the moment. Brassaà ¯ used capture the beauty of streets, frogs and rain in the garden at night (Sayag, 2000). He was fascinated by the nightlife. This time is also associated with romance and lovemaking. Cafà ©s are also usually filled with people and couples at this time. His photographs are in black and white color that resonates with the nighttime. The picture under discussion is black and white in color, which makes the pictures traditional. The lovers are seated inside a booth and about to embrace each other. The man is leaning in for the kiss; he is holding his prize with both his arms. The woman brushes her hair to reveal her face to make it accessible for her man. Her chin is lifted up, and her eyes are locked in with the mans eyes as she welcomes every move of him. The audience in this photograph is the teacups and the table. The subjects are completely ignoring what is going on around them. They are immersed in the magic of love. The onlooker can witness this magic moment from three angles. They can get a glimpse of what is in the reality. But a more

The Challenges Facing Cultural Diversity

The Challenges Facing Cultural Diversity These days cultural diversity plays a significant role in a company. The criteria discriminating these groups include race, geographic basis, civilization, gender, age, functional or educational background, physical and cognitive competence, language, lifestyles, beliefs, cultural background, economic category, occupancy with the organization and sexual preference. As a MNC works in a global market it must be ready to detect all possible changes in the global environment and it has to be able to communicate and adapt the identity of the company to them. For example in India womens will not work for night so they have to manage time for their convenience. The company cant offer quality products or services to the customers if it doesnt understand and take in account the impact that the culture has in all the processes. Workers usually think that their behavior hasnt got any influence on the final product or service, but to be effective, every part must have a clear vision of the company and a clear mission on it. The social, political and enterprise structure depends on everyone in the company, so the internal area and the human resources, one of the most important areas of a company, must be developed with the rest of the company to achieve their goals. The misunderstanding and ignoring of different cultures, language and historical background lead to disasters in the field of setting up multinational business. To avoid this, a general knowledge of another nations culture and history is essential. So general cultural knowledge, if coupled with prejudice and prejudgment, is an obstacle to effective global management. 2.1 Communication and language barriers One main challenge under culture is language barriers. Communication is necessary for management. Yet communication relies upon a common language, a condition that does not exist in many global business situations and that is when the problems start. The most pronounced sign of the language barrier at work can be found in the relationship between a multinational parent company and its network of global subsidiaries. Several factors contribute to the difficulty of achieving and sustaining effective communications and a productive, collaborative relationship. Even if an employee is relatively competent in the language of the other party, loss of rhetorical skills is always present as the use of humor, symbolism, sensitivity, negotiation, persuasion and motivation requires a very high level of fluency. 2.2 Attitudes towards Appointments and Deadlines In America, Americans were give strict obedience to time commitments and it was a basic principle of professionalism and polite behavior. Because everything tends to be strictly scheduled, postponements in one appointment or deadline can have a serious ripple effect on a coworker or customers other work commitments. But for example: The more flexible and open-ended approach to time of Indian and Sri Lankan businesses culture can create tensions and adverse impressions on American counterparts 3. MNC Workforce Diversity Multinational Companies (MNC) had to face a number of new challenges in their daily business over the past couple of years. Globalization changed various things for global players. In general MNC structure shows a focus on their main resources and departments like finance, technology, marketing, sales and production, because they want to have a large number of customers and to earn profit. A huge challenge MNC have to manage is their workforce diversity. The milestone research by Hofstede with 116,000 recruits of IBM, a giant MNC in 50 countries and 3 regions recognized four cultural values in the workplace: Individualism-collectivism, Power difference, Uncertainty avoidance and masculinity-femininity. For example: the United States was the greatest and Guatemala was lowest in individualism. Malaysia was the highest and Austria was the lowest in the power distance values. Greece was the highest and Singapore was the lowest in the uncertainty avoidance values. Japan was the highest and Sweden was the lowest in the masculinity values. There have been significant amount of intercultural and cross-cultural studies with these cultural values, and some studies demonstrated the relationship between communication styles with some of these values. Because of this diversity one of the key success factors of MNC is the recruitment and selection of human resources who offer valuable uniqueness. These individuals are forming the values and beliefs of a business. There are two key challenges within global HRM specifically building global corporate cultures and developing global leaders that have to be mastered in order to manage diversity and be successful in the global business surroundings. Managing diversity in MNC during HRM To manage workforce diversity in MNC its a challenge for the human resource management to set up a global corporate culture. To recognize with the corporate culture of the company is the most significant thing for the workforce. That is why building a global corporate culture is one of the most important challenges for Multinational Companies. Employee behavior is possibly the most critical challenge that multinational organizations have to deal with. In Multinational Companies there is a huge potential of conflicts, because of its diverse personalities. As a result of this anxieties will arise among employees. Individuals try to adapt their behaviors to fit the demands of a particular environment. In order to adapt to the environment, individuals sacrifice their individualities to fit in with their new cooperatives. Individuals become incorporated into the culture of an organization when they are successfully understood into the workplace. Successful cultural adaptation reduces members anxiety, role conflict, and intentions to leave. Additionally, successful adaptation increases organizational obligation, job satisfaction, confidence, and job familiarity as well as successful acculturation and establishment of relationship. 4. Challenges of Working across Culture 4.1Stereotyping They are usually misrepresentations and inaccuracies fixed in false guesses and faulty analysis. Usually this valuation is seen in a negative perspective. The challenges to organizations are to acknowledge differences in positive terms. Power struggles and can be the result of stereotyping in organizations. For example, placing women, who stereotypically have had lower status than men in society; in senior management positions create status incongruence in the minds of many of the people. This can root complexities in the leader/subordinate relationship and can root power differences in a business. This is done in such a way that affiliates of minority groups may find it hard to use influence over decision processes in the organization. 4.2 Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism results when managers identify the differences in cultures but have a propensity to think that their culture and their way of doing things is the right way, their way of doing things is the only way and the best way. Any difference from their culture or from their way of doing things is seen as distortion or as a mistake or as Wrong way. Most people have the propensity to pursue ethnocentrism. Americans, Japanese, Chinese, Germans, French, Scandinavians, and Russians are more prone to ethnocentrism than other cultures when compared to other Asians, Latin Americans, British, Australians, Africans and Indians. 4.3Informal Integration Informal groups play a significant role in any business. They influence both the success of the business and the career success of individuals. Total quality plans depend heavily on employee contribution and informal networks can greatly impact this process. Informal groups are influenced by factors such as common language, perceived social similarity, and ethnocentrism. These collective networks are critical for communication in organizations. It has been found that race has a major effect on collective networking. This is not astonishing as you would expect people to have a preference for interaction with members of ones own culture group, especially in an informal context. 4.4 Parochial Attitude Parochial attitude refers to a persons incapability to see cultural diversity. This is exactly the reverse of ethnocentrism. Managers who are sent overseas frequently meet people who are also dressed in suits and speak their language this prompts them to disregard all other cultural differences and make them feel that all others are just like us. In todays business globe, most people are apt to dress similarly in suits or other formulas and talk in English, but this does not indicate that all people have the same culture but people often only see the surface and think that the other person shares the same cultural values. Managers from US/UK often tend to display a strong parochial attitude mainly because the people with whom they relate on regular basis can speak English and are dressed similarly in suits or western dresses.

Colonialism and Imperialism in Africa Essay examples -- Exploratory Es

Disease and Imperialism in Africa      Ã‚  Ã‚   Diseases were prevalent in Africa during the time of European Imperialism. Disease affected both natives and European peoples in Africa. African diseases affected both natives and European explorers and soldiers as well as diseases brought by the Europeans that affected the Africans.      Ã‚  Ã‚   Numerouks diseases impadcted the Europeans in Africa during the time of Imperialism.   During the time of Imperialism many explorers and soldiers died of disease. "During 1804-25 over 60 per cent of the men sent out by the Church Missionary Society died of disease" (McLynn 228). Traveling to Africa was very dangerous. "Before the 19th century, European soldiers in the tropical areas [in Africa] died from disease at four to five time the rate of those in Europe" (Curtin). "By far the greatest fatality in Africa was from malaria" (McLynn 228). Often times entire expeditions would die of disease upon traveling in Africa. "Of the 40 men who accompanied Mongo Park's second expedition to the Niger in 1805, not one returned to England. Six were killed in battle, the rest died of malaria or dysentery" (McLynn 228). The Europeans lacked ways to cure or prevent these diseases because they knew so little about them. "Traditional remedies were lying in steam baths, taking cold dip s in the sea, applying bisters or swallowing doses of strychnine, arsenic, and calomel" (McLynn 232). Disease stopped the Europeans from moving quickly through Africa. The symptoms of illness and loss of life halted exploration. Symptoms of malaria were incapacitating; they included "chills, fever, and sweating" ("Malaria"). The cause of malaria was unknown until it was discovered that it was "caused by a blood parasite of man,... ...rta. CD-ROM. Microsoft. 1994. Manderson, Lenore Ph.D. "Public Health Developments in Colonial Malaya:   Colonialism and the Politics of Prevention." America Journal of Public Health. Jan 1999: 102-107. Masland, Tom, and Rod Nordland. "10 Million Orphans." Newsweek. 17 Jan. 2000. 5 March 2000 http://newsweek.com/nw-srv/printed/us/in/a4881-2000jan9.htm. McLynn, Frank. Hearts of Darkness: The European Exploration of Africa. New York:   Carrol & Graf, 1993. 227-252. Reader, John. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. New York: Vintage Books, 1997.   239-248. Smaldone, Joseph P. "Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa." The Journal of Military History. April 1999:   453-455. Online. Proquest. Proquest UMI. 28 Feb. 2000. Wekesser, Carol, ed. Africa: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1992. 24-32. Colonialism and Imperialism in Africa Essay examples -- Exploratory Es Disease and Imperialism in Africa      Ã‚  Ã‚   Diseases were prevalent in Africa during the time of European Imperialism. Disease affected both natives and European peoples in Africa. African diseases affected both natives and European explorers and soldiers as well as diseases brought by the Europeans that affected the Africans.      Ã‚  Ã‚   Numerouks diseases impadcted the Europeans in Africa during the time of Imperialism.   During the time of Imperialism many explorers and soldiers died of disease. "During 1804-25 over 60 per cent of the men sent out by the Church Missionary Society died of disease" (McLynn 228). Traveling to Africa was very dangerous. "Before the 19th century, European soldiers in the tropical areas [in Africa] died from disease at four to five time the rate of those in Europe" (Curtin). "By far the greatest fatality in Africa was from malaria" (McLynn 228). Often times entire expeditions would die of disease upon traveling in Africa. "Of the 40 men who accompanied Mongo Park's second expedition to the Niger in 1805, not one returned to England. Six were killed in battle, the rest died of malaria or dysentery" (McLynn 228). The Europeans lacked ways to cure or prevent these diseases because they knew so little about them. "Traditional remedies were lying in steam baths, taking cold dip s in the sea, applying bisters or swallowing doses of strychnine, arsenic, and calomel" (McLynn 232). Disease stopped the Europeans from moving quickly through Africa. The symptoms of illness and loss of life halted exploration. Symptoms of malaria were incapacitating; they included "chills, fever, and sweating" ("Malaria"). The cause of malaria was unknown until it was discovered that it was "caused by a blood parasite of man,... ...rta. CD-ROM. Microsoft. 1994. Manderson, Lenore Ph.D. "Public Health Developments in Colonial Malaya:   Colonialism and the Politics of Prevention." America Journal of Public Health. Jan 1999: 102-107. Masland, Tom, and Rod Nordland. "10 Million Orphans." Newsweek. 17 Jan. 2000. 5 March 2000 http://newsweek.com/nw-srv/printed/us/in/a4881-2000jan9.htm. McLynn, Frank. Hearts of Darkness: The European Exploration of Africa. New York:   Carrol & Graf, 1993. 227-252. Reader, John. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. New York: Vintage Books, 1997.   239-248. Smaldone, Joseph P. "Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa." The Journal of Military History. April 1999:   453-455. Online. Proquest. Proquest UMI. 28 Feb. 2000. Wekesser, Carol, ed. Africa: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1992. 24-32.

Critical Questions on Animal Farm

Critical Questions: Written Assignment 1 7. In Animal Farm the author George Orwell uses animals to represent the Russian revolution. One of the differences in the novel and the two films were old major’s death. In the novel he dies of natural causes however in the movies he calls a meeting to tell all the other animals about his point of view on the rights of animals and man. He teaches them the song (their anthem) â€Å"beats of England† and mr. Jones hears them all singing in the night and to settle them down he shoots his gun and accidentally shoots old major. Also, the way Napoleon punishes the chicken.In the novel he acts like the chicken betrayed the Animal farm and makes the dogs attack them. In the movies he thinks the same ways but instead of getting the dogs to attack, Napoleon hangs the chickens for all of Animal farm to see. Another difference is how the windmill gets ruined. In the novel, the first time it gets destroyed was when there was a huge storm tha t knocked it all over. The second time was during the second battle from the humans. The people place dynamite inside and blow it up. In the movies it only gets ruined once. That time was where mr.Jones and his wife decide to place dynamite and blow it up. These changes alter the overall message of Animal farm slightly. We can still see the same point trying to be proven in both Animal farm films and novel. 3. One of the minor characters from the novel would have to be Moses. Moses is a tame black raven in the novel. He is the one to spread around the stories of sugar candy Mountain. Sugar Candy Mountain in the book is the heaven to which Moses believes the animals from the farm go to once they die. Even though he is not a big role in Animal farm, he was very big importance.Animal Farm the author George Orwell uses Moses to show the others that death wouldn’t be such a bad thing. That if they die, it’s ok because they’re going to Sugar Candy Mountain. 6. In my o pinion if Snowball got rid of Napoleon instead of the other way around, the working and living situations would be completely different. Improved by a lot. Napoleon is the leader pig of Animal Farm after the Rebellion. Napoleon uses his nine attack dogs (stolen dogs) to frighten the other animals and make them do as he says. Napoleon his a little more in to be the leader and in it for himself than his counterpart, Snowball.He challenges Napoleon for control of Animal Farm after the Rebellion. Snowball seems to win the trust of the other animals and when Napoleon sees that he then takes part to get rid of his competition. I feel like if it were Snowball instead of Napoleon, the farm would have been closer to equality. In class we talked about an equal world and how it was impossible to completely obtain equality. Now if Snowball were to be the leader, it probably would have less usage of alcohol, tobacco†¦ Would have stayed tuck to all the 7 commandments. 4.Animal farm can be se en as a fable even though it does not have a moral stated at the end. Just because there was no moral stated it doesn’t mean there was no message Animal Farm author George Orwell was trying to get through. I believe that my own moral of this story would be that you cannot take and take and take and not expect to give. In the novel Animal farm and like most farms, the human would take all that that the animals could provide so that they could have benefits for themselves. This book made sense that the animals got fed up with it all.Then when the pigs got power, it wasn’t a surprise that they became to think the same as the humans. If it wasn’t for the death of all the animals, I feel like the animals would have treated the pigs as human and the same process would have happened. All because of greed. 2. I think that the Animal farm author George Orwell made readers sympathize with all the animals except for the pigs because even though they were the most intellige nt beasts in this case and the closest to the animals, old Major was a pig.That being, the pigs automatically became the first to have power. Once they saw the life of the human and got the ability to obtain so, they fell into the same old bad habits of taking, taking and taking without giving. They then turned into humans. If any other kind of animal would have been in their place the same thing most likely would have happened. For those reasons, the author did not chose to make the readers sympathize the author animals, it’s just the way it played out once the pigs got power and became humans.

Health for All Children

Is health for all children an achievable goal? The world’s children have rights to health which are enshrined in international law. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child Articles 6 and 24 pertain to the rights of children to life, survival and development, enjoyment of the highest attainable standards of health and facilities for the treatment of illness and the rehabilitation of health (Block 4, p. 94).However, every year throughout the world vast numbers of children suffer ill health and die. Nearly 11 million children still die each year before their fifth birthday, often from readily preventable causes. An estimated 150 million children are malnourished (UNICEF 2001) (Block 4, p. 94. ) What follows is an exploration of the causes and treatments of ill health looking at the major challenges of poverty, inequality, culture and gender, and the social and political dimensions of such matters.The effectiveness or otherwise of international health intervention programmes is analysed and a measure of the progress made so far and the possibility of health for the world’s children becoming a realistic goal is discussed. Health is a culturally constructed concept, a collection of ideas and beliefs gathered from our experiences of living within a family, community and wider society. It is recognised by health professionals, theorists and researchers that being healthy means different things to different people.When considering matters of health it needs to be understood that health and disease are complex terms that are more than just a matter of genetics. Health is influenced by personal, cultural, social, economic and political circumstances. The definition of the term health as used by the World Health Organisation (WHO) since 1948 is as follows: ‘a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’. (WHO, 2009). The WHO definition promotes an holistic view of h ealth that has been criticised for being idealistic and difficult to put into practice.What is important about this definition is that it is a positive interpretation that implies that health for all is something that can be achieved. Certainly this definition has aided thinking around health as more than simply the absence of infirmity and emphasises a social dimension. Globalisation, economics, adverse living conditions, the lack of availability of primary health care, differing social practices and cultural notions of health are all factors that impact on the health of people.These factors present both challenges and opportunities for the world regarding the possibility of achieving health for all children. Medical advancements in the latter half of the twentieth century has seen most notably the development of antibiotics, vitamins, vaccinations for serious infectious diseases such as Measles, Mumps, Rubella and Chicken Pox, to name but a few, along with a vaccination that eradi cated Small Pox.One advantage of globalisation is the increasing awareness of the plight of children in developing countries which has marshalled medical intervention and has resulted in a drastic decrease in child and young people’s mortality rates. However, despite advancements in medical technology, the availability of health treatments has not guaranteed the eradication of some preventable and curable illnesses (for example, Diarrhoea).Diarrhoea can be treated very effectively with a low cost intervention. Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS) prevent dehydration which is the cause of deaths amongst children with diarrhoea. However, in studies of the Huli people in Papua New Guinea it was noted that although at first the mortality rate from diarrhoea fell as a result of the ORS intervention programme, the improvements were not sustained and the Huli people became dissatisfied with the treatment.The Huli people desired a treatment that would address the symptoms of diarrhoea: dry u p the runny stools of the sick children. Administering ORS fluids didn’t make sense and clashed with their understanding of the illness. Furthermore, the need to dissolve the ORS medication in water necessitates a clean water supply, something so basic but something that isn’t always available in communities in the South. The ‘Miracle cure’ or ‘Magic bullet’ for diarrhoea, ORS, is an example of how selective, vertical interventions may save lives.But it is also a prime example of how a purely medical approach to health does little to improve the quality of lives when other causes of illness such as poor sanitation and lack of clean water are not addressed. (Block 4, p. 125). A Western biomedical approach to the treatment of ill health has its limitations. Technological cures in the form of drugs, although vitally important, will on their own do little but not enough to make health an attainable goal for the world’s children.The concept of human rights and rights for children has gained increased recognition across the world. The status of children has been raised and children’s interests placed on political agenda’s throughout many states. ‘As of November 2009, 194 countries ratified, accepted, or acceded to the UNCRC (some with stated reservations or interpretations) including every member of the United Nations except Somalia and the United States. Somalia has announced that it would shortly do so’ (Wikipedia, 2010).Yet there remains concern about the real levels of commitment to concepts of children’s rights and concern about the lack of accountability to make nations uphold right’s for children. Through media coverage of world catastrophes, such as famines and droughts and through campaigns delivered by humanitarian and charitable organisations an ethical and moral debate is taking place about the need to address global health that has pricked the moral conscience. What is now required is effective systems that can help realise children’s rights and mobilise efforts to make health for all an achievable goal.The economic power of some nations and global corporations, and structural adjustment programmes (SAP’s) have created imbalances of power and forces that have worked against health goals with the effect of widening economic disparities between rich and poor across and within nations. SAP’s have been imposed to ensure debt repayment and economic restructuring. But some poor countries have had to reduce spending on things like health, education and development, while debt repayment and other economic policies have been made the priority.For many basic health care has become a service that can only be accessed if an individual has money to purchase it. Free health care has become less about a human right and more of a commodity to be bought. A further challenge to health for children in relation to economics is that within coun tries where there is political instability and conflict nations priorities become one of national security, funding arms and defense programmes and as a result there is decreased funding for basic care and education. At present an attitude prevails that nations should ‘look after heir own’. There does exists a humanitarian approach to supporting poorer countries at times of emergency but there are no effective systems that legally oblige nations to work together to ensure that basic living conditions, health care and the right’s of children are upheld. A change of attitude within and across nations and governments regarding whose responsibility it is to intervene and the importance of intervening to produce more egalitarian societies would go a long way to making health for all children an achievable goal.Global medical advancements, the development in the concept of rights for children internationally and world economic systems have been investigated to demonstr ate how they have resulted in both opportunities and challenges to improving health for all children. Yet it is also necessary to look closer at the more personal experiences encountered by children and families and focus on the social and cultural factors that impact on health.Securing health for all children requires more than having medical expertise and drugs on hand to prevent and/or treat medical ailments. Several examples of differing cultural understandings around illness can be offered that illustrates this idea. The Bozo tribe of Mali believe that red urine in adolescent boys, a condition caused by a parasitic infection, is normal and indicates sexual maturity; as such it is celebrated as a sign of males reaching manhood. Within the Bozo tribal people the symptoms are not viewed as a sign of illness and the condition goes untreated.In Nigeria 76% of women perceive diarrhoea as a symptom of teething and as such a normal part of growth and development and not something which requires treatment (Block 4, p. 103). In both these examples the cultural and social dimensions of ill health contrast with Western biomedical approaches to children’s health. When culturally interpreted ideas of health conflict with medical systems where there is a focus purely on the biological causation of illness, the acceptance of a diagnosis and treatment of a condition can be problematic.Some challenges in achieving health for all children is managing and resolving the clash of differing world views regarding health, that is, people’s perceptions of health together with their level of understanding and acceptance of scientific notions of health, and how to increase community participation in health programmes. UNICEF states that ‘chronic poverty remains the greatest obstacle to fulfilling the rights of children’. In the UNICEF book, ‘We are the Children’, it is cited that half of humanity is desperately impoverished and half of the 1. billion people forced to live on less than $1 per day are children. (Block 4, p. 108). UNICEF and the World Bank have defined absolute poverty (less than $1 per day per person) as being the minimum amount that purchases the goods and services deemed necessary for basic survival. (Block 4, p. 49). This definition is most appropriate for those living in the poorest countries of the South, however, poverty affects many children living within the richest countries of the world also.Relative rather than absolute poverty, that is, the inequality and deprivation experienced relative to those better off living in the same society, can impact on health causing emotional stress, humiliation and social exclusion. Andrea Ashworth writing about her experiences of growing up in Manchester in the 1970’s described the multiple effects of poverty that she experienced; living in a flea infested home, eating a less than nutritious diet, the shame of not being able to afford certain basic items of food, the stress that poverty had on her mother and how it manifested symptoms of depression that impacted on the whole family. Reading B, Ashworth). Studies by the Child Poverty Action Group in the United Kingdom concludes that children growing up in poverty are more likely to be born prematurely, suffer chronic illnesses in later life, die from accidents, live in poor quality homes, have fewer employment opportunities, get in trouble with the police and be at greater risk of alcohol or drug misuse. Poverty impacts on both the physical and mental health of children and their overall quality of life. (Block 4, p. 57).In order to make improvements in the health of the world’s children it is necessary therefore not simply to make health care freely available to all but to confront and tackle wider issues of social justice, inequality and poverty. Cuba is an example of a country with limited material resources that has created a more egalitarian society by providing food, emp loyment, education and health care for all. They now have infant mortality rates on a par with some of the world’s wealthiest countries.Similarly, in Bangladesh as a result of a national commitment to invest in basic social services, the under fives mortality rate has decreased substantially. (Block 4, p. 109). This is strong evidence of the ability to make health for all an achievable goal if there is government commitment to tackling social justice and inequality. A further dimension of inequality is the discrimination in matters of health based on gender, birth order and social status at a local level.In cases of malnutrition in Mali, Dettwyler identified that access or entitlement to resources is shaped ‘by the social relations prevailing between and within families within communities’ (Block 4, p. 119). Dettwyler provides an example of discrimination against children that begins with discrimination against the mother. Aminata, since she was fostered by the f amily, was considered to be of low status. When she became pregnant with twins her status was further lowered along with her entitlement to food and freedoms.She had to accept a life of drudgery and hard work providing for others in the family which took precedence over caring for her own children who were suffering from malnutrition despite food being in plentiful supply. Aminata’s quality of life only improved when one of her children died, the other was sent away and Aminata married into a new family. Her social standing increased along with her quality of life. Aminata gave birth to three more children, two of whom survived and were reported to be only mildly malnourished. Reading C). Beliefs about female inferiority within many parts of the world impacts on rates of malnutrition and mortality amongst girls compared to boys. Studies have shown in India and China that girls are less likely to be breast fed for as long boys, are less likely to be given extra food and more l ikely to be abandoned. These social attitudes and practices towards girls can be changed through development policy on the education of females.Through education the chances of health and survival of children can be improved (Block 4, p. 116) It has been argued that to achieve health for all children multiple factors need to be addressed. Free basic primary health care needs to be available to all, yet this on its own will do a little but not enough to sustain health and survival. Sustainability requires adequate housing, sanitation, clean water and an environment free from pollutants. Education, skills training and employment enable people to contribute to society.They are determinants of health in that they raise self-esteem, feelings of worth and have the ability to empower, organise and rally people together to make changes to advance wealth and health. The health of the world’s children cannot be left in the hands of humanitarian and charitable organisations. Unscrupulou s governments and some economic policies are malign forces that impede progress. The ethical and moral questions regarding international intervention and the level of responsibility that different nations should or can have towards the peoples of other nations are difficult to answer.However, the goal of health for all, as complicated or impossible it may at first seem, has seen progress which should not be underestimated. Within sixty years the WHO has been set up, the UNCRC has been established, international policies have been devised that have bound nations to working together, unprecedented medical knowledge has been gained, lessons regarding what has worked and hasn’t worked have been learnt, cultural understandings have been developed and ethical and moral debates keep the issue of poverty and health in the minds of all.The world is entering a crucial phase where the scope to tackle world poverty and health of children is beginning to be realised. The know-how, experti se and resources exist to achieve health for all children. Perhaps the greatest challenge to success is establishing worldwide commitment to the endeavour.Word count 2,505 References Open University (2007) U212, Changing Childhoods, Local and Global, Block 4, Achieving Health for Children, Milton Keynes, The Open University Open University (2007), Changing Childhoods, Local and Global, Block 4, Achieving Health for all Children, Reading C, ‘Cases of Malnutrition in Mali’, Milton Keynes, The Open University. Open University (2007), Changing Childhoods, Local and Global, Block 4, Children, Poverty and Social Inequality, Reading B, ‘Once in a House on Fire’, Milton Keynes, The Open University. Wikipedia 2010 http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/UNCRC [accessed 5 September 2010] World Health Organisation 2003 http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/UNCRC [accessed 5 September 2010]